Meaning and Grammar

An introduction to semantics by Gennaro Chierchia and Sally McConnell-Ginet. Cambridge, Mass (The MIT Press), 2nd edition, 2000.

Publisher's description: "This self-contained introduction to natural language semantics addresses the major theoretical questions in the field. The authors introduce the systematic study of linguistic meaning through a sequence of formal tools and their linguistic applications. Starting with propositional connectives and truth conditions, the book moves to quantification and binding, intensionality and tense, and so on. To set their approach in a broader perspective, the authors also explore the interaction of meaning with context and use (the semantics-pragmatics interface) and address some of the foundational questions, especially in connection with cognition in general. They also introduce a few of the most accessible and interesting ideas from recent research to give the reader a bit of the flavor of current work in semantics. The organization of this new edition is modular; after the introductory chapters, the remaining material can be covered in flexible order. The book presupposes no background in formal logic (an appendix introduces the basic notions of set theory) and only a minimal acquaintance with linguistics. This edition includes a substantial amount of completely new material and has been not only updated but redesigned throughout to enhance its user-friendliness."

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Semantics in Generative Grammar

Irene Heim and Angelika Kratzer. Oxford (Blackwell Publishers), 1998.

Publisher's description: "The reader gets the immediate impression that they are being invited to contribute to real work, which is inspiring. The style is easy to read and the exposition of many difficult and confusing topics is very clear. Semantics in Generative Grammer is really an advanced introduction..." Jennifer Spenader, University of Groningen, The Netherlands.

"This book shows that natural language semantics has reached its maturity. A careful and enlightening discussion guides the reader through the intricacies of argument structure, quantification, and binding, some of the very central topics in semantics and in the syntax/semantics interface. Traditional techniques from logic are presented in a way aimed at bringing out what is really important to the study of language. " Gennaro Chierchia, University of Milan.

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An introductory book about pronouns and binding that complements the Heim & Kratzer textbook:

Binding Theory

By Daniel Büring. Cambridge (Cambridge University Press), 2005.

Publisher's description: "Binding theory seeks to explain how different kinds of nominal expressions such as names, noun phrases and pronouns have anaphoric relations amongst one another, and how they come to have reference to things in the world. This textbook provides a thorough and comprehensive introduction to modern binding theory. Starting at a very basic level, it introduces the reader to a huge variety of nominal and especially pronominal expressions from the world's languages, the ways they can be used, and current theorising about their grammatical properties and their interpretation. Daniel Büring discusses a wide range of cross-linguistic data and theoretical approaches, and unlike in existing introductions, pairs the discussion of syntactic facts with a detailed introduction to the semantic interpretation of binding structures. Written in a clear and accessible style, and with numerous exercises and examples, this textbook will be invaluable to graduate and advanced undergraduate students of syntax and semantics."

Excerpt (PDF, 150 KB).

If you want to read some essential articles in semantics, I recommend Portner and Partee's collection:

Formal Semantics. The Essential Readings.

Edited by Paul Portner and Barbara Partee. Oxford (Blackwell Publishers), 2002.

Publisher's description: "The formal semantics approach to the study of natural language semantics was developed through active dialogue between linguistically minded philosophers and philosophically minded linguists and has become increasingly integrated into theoretical linguistics. Formal Semantics: The Essential Readings is a collection of seminal papers that have shaped the field of formal semantics in linguistics.The book covers key central themes and includes both an editorial introduction and extensive references. It is a vital resource for students and scholars of semantics and the philosophy of language."

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A collection of seminal papers in natural language semantics:

Compositionality in Formal Semantics

Selected Papers by Barbara Partee. Oxford (Blackwell Publishers), 2004.

Publisher's description: "Barbara H. Partee has played a central role in developing the now-flourishing field of formal semantics, bringing the formal semantic approach developed by logicians together with a linguistically sophisticated account of the syntax of natural languages. She has continued to be a major contributor to semantics, offering general ideas that have helped to clarify the character of the enterprise as well as imaginative and persuasive detailed analyses.Compositionality in Formal Semantics is a collection of Partee 's papers that have been influential in the field but are not all readily available, and includes a new introductory essay in which Partee reflects on how her thinking and the field of semantics have developed over the past 35 years. This collection is invaluable both for understanding the history and evolution of the field and for its contribution to ongoing research."

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A selection of essential papers in the philosophy of language:

Readings in the Philosophy of Language

By Peter Ludlow. Cambridge/Mass. (The MIT Press), 1997.

Publisher's description: "Throughout the history of ideas, various branches of philosophy have spun off into the natural sciences, including physics, biology, and perhaps most recently, cognitive psychology. A central theme of this collection is that the philosophy of language, at least a core portion of it, has matured to the point where it is now being spun off into linguistic theory. Each section of the book contains historical (twentieth-century) readings and, where available, recent attempts to apply the resources of contemporary linguistic theory to the problems under discussion. This approach helps to root the naturalization project in the leading questions of analytic philosophy. Although the older readings predate the current naturalization project, they help to lay its conceptual foundations. The main sections of the book, each of which is preceded by an introduction, are Language and Meaning, Logical Form and Grammatical Form, Descriptions, Names, Demonstratives, and Attitude Reports.

The collection is not intended as a final report on a mature line of philosophical inquiry. Rather, its purpose is to show students what doing real philosophy is all about and to let them share in the excitement as philosophers enter a period in which how philosophy of language is conducted could change in fundamental ways."

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Is logic relevant for the semantics of natural languages? An influential positive answer was given by the British philosopher Paul Grice. A very readable book about Grice:

Paul Grice. Philosopher and Linguist.

By Siobhan Chapman. New York (Palgrave) 2005.

"It may seem surprising that the middle-aged British philosopher interested in the role of individual speakers in creating meaning should cite as an influence the young American linguist notorious for dismissing issues of use in his pursuit of a universal theory of language. But Grice was inspired by Chomsky's demonstration in his work on syntax of how 'a region for long found theoretically intractable by scholars (like Jespersen) of the highest intelligence could, by discovery and application of the right apparatus, be brought under control'. Less formally, he expressed admiration for an approach that did not offer 'piecemeal reflections on language' but rather where 'one got a picture of the whole thing'." Paul Grice. Philosopher and Linguist, pages 85, 86.

More about this book.

Chris Potts' review of Paul Grice. Philosopher and Linguist.

A very important recent book about preferred interpretations that you can read online via the CogNet database:

Presumptive Meanings. The Theory of Generalized Conversational Implicature.

By Stephen Levinson. Cambridge/Mass. (The MIT Press), 2000.

"A generalized implicature is, in effect, a default inference, one that captures our intuitions about a preferred or normal interpretation. The notion of a preferred interpretation is not one that has any special currency in the theory of language at the present time. Indeed, it is a notion that is currently either ignored or subject to virulent attack by some pragmaticists, psycholinguists, and workers in artificial intelligence. In defense of this notion, I develop a number of arguments both positive and negative. First, looking back at Grice's program, we see that such a notion (contrary to some recent commentary) was central to his concerns; and those concerns, whatever the differences in modern implementation, seem perfectly current today. Second, I diagnose that one source of the current theoretical resistence to GCIs is a simplistic overall scheme for a theory of communication, within which there is no place for a theory of preferred interpretation. I argue that there is overwhelming evidence for the need for such a theory, evidence much broader than that for GCIs themselves, and consequently that our overall scheme must provide a nich of an appropriate sort in any case. When this is appreciated, much of the resistance to GCIs should wither away.

Next, I produce an argument from design to the effect that a system of preferred interpretation would be much too effective a device in communication for any naturally evolved system of communication to fail to have developed such a thing." Presumptive Meanings, p. 11.

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A book about the language of judges by Larry Solan, who received his PhD in linguistics from UMass with a thesis on language acquisition. Noam Chomsky's endorsement: "With skill and care, Solan's thoughtful inquiry draws from contemporary study of language to provide much insight into judicial practice. It is a challenging and enlightening analysis."

The Language of Judges

By Lawrence M. Solan. Chicago (Chicago University Press), 1993.

Publisher's description:
"Since many legal disputes are battles over the meaning of a statute, contract, testimony, or the Constitution, judges must interpret language in order to decide why one proposed meaning overrides another. And in making their decisions about meaning appear authoritative and fair, judges often write about the nature of linguistic interpretation. In the first book to examine the linguistic analysis of law, Lawrence M. Solan shows that judges sometimes inaccurately portray the way we use language, creating inconsistencies in their decisions and threatening the fairness of the judicial system.

Solan uses a wealth of examples to illustrate the way linguistics enters the process of judicial decision making: a death penalty case that the Supreme Court decided by analyzing the use of adjectives in a jury instruction; criminal cases whose outcomes depend on the Supreme Court's analysis of the relationship between adverbs and prepositional phrases; and cases focused on the meaning of certain words in the Constitution. Solan finds that judges often describe our use of language poorly because there is no clear relationship between the principles of linguistics and the jurisprudential goals that the judge wishes to promote."

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Another book about legal language:

Legal Language

By Peter M. Tiersma. Chicago (Chicago University Press), 1999.

"Publisher's description:
Statutes, judicial opinions, contracts, deeds, and wills profoundly affect our daily lives, but their language tends to be often nearly impossible to understand. In this lively history of legal language, Peter Tiersma slices through the thicket of legalese, explaining where it comes from, why lawyers continue to cling to it, and why it's doesn't have to be an inevitable feature of our legal system."

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And a joint book by Solan and Tiersma:

Speaking of Crime. The Language of Criminal Justice

By Lawrence M. Solan and Peter M. Tiersma. Chicago (Chicago University Press), 1999.

Publisher's description:
"Why do so many people voluntarily consent to searches by have the police search their person or vehicle when they know that they are carrying contraband or evidence of illegal activity? Does everyone understand the Miranda warning? How well can people recognize a voice on tape? Can linguistic experts identify who wrote an anonymous threatening letter?

Speaking of Crime answers these questions and examines the complex role of language within our criminal justice system. Lawrence M. Solan and Peter M. Tiersma compile numerous cases, ranging from the Lindbergh kidnapping to the impeachment trial of Bill Clinton to the JonBenét Ramsey case, that provide real-life examples of how language functions in arrests, investigations, interrogations, confessions, and trials. In a clear and accessible style, Solan and Tiersma show how recent advances in the study of language can aid in understanding how legal problems arise and how they might be solved."

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A book that makes a connection with speech act theory:

Creating Language Crimes: How Law Enforcement uses and (Misuses) Language

By Roger W. Shuy. Chicago (Oxford University Press), 2005.

Publisher's description:
"This book by Roger W. Shuy, the senior figure in forensic linguistics, is the first to explain in an accessible way the vital role that linguistic evidence and its proper analysis play in criminal investigations.Shuy provides compelling case studies of how language functions in investigations involving, among others, wired undercover operatives, and the interrogation of suspects. He makes the point that language evidence can be as important as physical evidence, but yet does not enjoy the same degree of scrutiny by investigators, attorneys, and the courts. Beyond this, however, his more controversial thesis is that police frequently misuse or manipulate language, using various powerful controversial strategies, in order to intentionally create an impression of the targets' guilt or even to get them to confess.This book makes its case by analyzing a dozen criminal cases involving a variety of crimes, such as fraud, bribery, stolen property, murder, and others. About half involve co-operating witnesses who do the tape recording, and the other half undercover police officers. These cases demonstrate how undercover operatives use different conversational strategies, such as overlapping conversation, ambiguity, interruption, refusing to take "no" for an answer, and others to create a negative impression of the targets on later listeners.Creating Language Crimes provides a fascinating window into a little-known and discussed facet of law enforcement. It will appeal to anyone concerned with language (particularly sociolinguists and discourse analysts), as well as to those involved in law enforcement and criminal cases."

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